​MICROBIOLOGY- MEDICAL EDUCATION

---

MICROBIOLOGY- MEDICAL EDUCATION​ SYLLABUS

(The syllabus may change from time to time. Please check with the relevant Public Service Commission websites for any changes in the syllabus)​
​

• Carbohydrate catabolic pathways and microbial growth on C1 Compounds 
• EMP, HMP, ED, Phosphoketolase pathway, TCA cycle, methylglyoxal bypass. Anaplerotic sequences, catabolism of different carbohydrates, glycerol metabolism, regulation of carbohydrate metabolism, Pasteur effect. Substrate level phosphorylation. 
• Microbial growth on C1 Compounds (Cyanide, Methane, Methanol, methylated amines and carbon monoxide).
• Bacterial fermentations (biochemical aspects) and Biosynthesis
•  Alcohol, lactate, mixed acid, butyric acid, acetone-butanol, propionic acid, succinate, methane, and acetate fermentations. Fermentation of single nitrogenous compounds [amino acids] - alanine, glutamate and glycine. 
• Biosynthesis of Purines, Pyrimidines and  fatty acids.
•  Functions of endogenous metabolism, types of reserve materials, enzymatic synthesis, degradation     and            regulation          of         reserve materials - glycogen,           polyphosphates and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), PHB production and its futuristic applications.
• Microbial degradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons (microorganisms involved, mon-terminal, biterminal oxidation of propane, decane, etc.) and aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds   (via catechol, protocatechuate, meta-cleavage of catechol and protocatechuate, dissimilation of catechol and protocatechuate, homogentisate and other related pathways).
•  Classification of enzymes into six major groups with suitable examples. Numerical classification of enzymes. Different structural conformations of enzyme proteins. Enzymes as biocatalysts, catalytic power, activation energy, substrate specificity, active site, theories of mechanisms of enzyme action. Mechanism of action of lysozyme, chymotrypsin and ribonuclease.
• Monomeric, Oligomeric and multienzyme complex, isozymes and allosteric enzymes. Extremozymes - thermostable, solventogenic and non- aqueous enzymes. Ribozymes and abzymes
•  Importance of enzyme kinetics, factors affecting rates of enzyme mediated reactions (pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration and reaction time). Derivation of Michaelis - Menton equation and its significance in enzyme kinetic studies. Lineweaver-Burke plot, Haldane-Briggs relationship, sigmoidal kinetics steady state kinetics and transient phases of enzyme reaction.                                                                       
• Principle   and working of pH meter, Laminar-air flow. Centrifugation: Types of centrifuge machines, preparative and analytical centrifuges, differential centrifugation, sedimentation velocity, sedimentation equilibrium, density gradient methods and their applications.
• Theory, principles and applications of paper, thin layer, gel filtration, ion exchange, affinity, hydrophobic, gas liquid, high pressure/ performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)       
• Basic principles of electrophoresis, theory and application of paper, starch gel, agarose, native and denaturing PAGE, isoelectric focusing.
• Spectroscopic techniques, theory and applications of Uv, Visible, IR, NMR, Fluorescence, Atomic Absorption, CD, ORD, Mass, Raman Spectroscopy.
• Use of radioisotopes in life sciences, radioactive labeling, principle and application of tracer techniques, detection and measurement of radioactivity using ionization chamber, proportional chamber, Geiger- Muller and Scintillation counters, autoradiography and its applications.
•  Starter cultures their biochemical activities, production and preservation of the following fermented foods.- Soy sauce fermentation by Moulds,  Fermented vegetables – Saurkraut,  Fermented Meat – Sausages,  Production and application of Bakers Yeast,        Application of microbial enzymes in food industry
• Foodborne infections and intoxications; bacterial with examples of infective and toxic types –, Clostridium, Salmonella, Shigella, Staphylococcus, Campylobacter, Listeria. 
• Mycotoxins in food with reference to Aspergillus species.
• Quality assurance: Microbiological quality standards of food. Government regulatory practices and policies. FDA, EPA, HACCP, ISI.
•  Radiations - UV, Gamma and microwave , Temperature 
• Chemical and naturally occurring antimicrobials   Biosensors in food industry. 
• Microbiology of fermented milk products  (acidophilus milk, yoghurt).
• Role of microorganisms in beverages – tea and coffee fermentations.
• Vinegar Fermentation 
• Genetically modified foods.  Biosensors in food, Applications of microbial enzymes in dairy industry [Protease, Lipases].
• Utilization and disposal of dairy by-product - whey.
•  Cataloging the virus through virus classification schemes of ICTV / ICNV. Morphology and ultra-structure of viruses. Virus related agents, viroids and prions.
• Cultivation of viruses using embryonated eggs, experimental animals and cell cultures (Cell-lines, cell strains and transgenic systems).  Purification of viruses by adsorption, precipitation, enzymes, serological methods – haeme agglutination and ELISA.
• Assay of viruses – Physical and Chemical methods (Electron Microscopy and Protein and Nucleic acids studies.)
• Infectivity Assays (Plaque and end-point) 
• Genetic analysis of viruses by classical genetic methods.
•  Mechanism of virus adsorption and entry into the host cell including genome replication and mRNA production by animal viruses, mechanism of RNA synthesis, mechanism of DNA
• synthesis, transcription mechanism and post transcriptional processing, translation of viral
• proteins, assembly, exit and maturation of progeny virions, multiplication of bacteriophages.
• Host and virus factors involved in pathogenesis, patterns of infection, pathogenesis of animal viruses Adenovirus, Herpes virus, Hepatitis virus, Picorna virus, Poxvirus and Orthomyxovirus, pathogenesis of plant [TMV] and insect viruses [NPV]. Host cell transformation by viruses and oncogenesis of DNA and RNA viruses.
• Control of viral infections through vaccines, interferons and chemotherapeutic agents. 
• Structure, genomic organization, pathogenesis and control of Human immunodeficiency virus. Emerging viruses
• Organs and cells involved in immune system and immune response. Lymphocytes, their subpopulation, their properties and functions, membrane bound receptors of lymph cells, helper T cells, T cells suppression, lymphocyte trafficking.      
• Concept of haptens, determinants, conditions of antigenicity, antigens and immunogenecity, superantigen. 
• Immunoglobulins: Structure and properties of immunoglobulin classes. Theories   of antibody formation, hybridoma technology for monoclonal antibodies and designer monoclonal antibodies. Multiple mylomas and structural basis of antibody diversity. Freund’s adjuvants and its significance.
• Antigen-Antibody reaction by precipitation, agglutination and complement fixation. 
• Non-specific immune mechanism: - Surface defenses, tissue defenses, opsonization, inflamatory reaction, and hormone balance. 
• Tissue metabolites with bactericidal properties (lysozyme, nuclein, histone, protamine, basic peptides of tissues – leukins, phagocytins, lecterins, haemocompounds)
• Regulation of immune response: antigen processing and presentation, generation of humoral and cell mediated immune response, activation of B and T lymphocytes, cytokines and their role in
• immune regulation, T cell regulation, MHC restriction, immunological tolerance. Cell mediated cytotoxicity: Mechanism of T cells and NK mediated lysis, antibody dependent cell mediated
• cytotoxicity, and macrophage mediated cytotoxicity. 
• Complement system: Classical, alternate, lectin pathway of complement activation. Regulation of complement activation. 
• Transplantation immunology: MHC, types of grafts, grafts rejection, GVH reactions, mechanism of graft rejection, and prevention of graft rejection.
• Defense against bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Immunodiagnostics and immunotherapy in virology – Serological methods for detection and quantitation of viruses including Hepatitis, Influenza, HIV and others.
• Immuno-assays:  SRID, ELISA, ELISA-PCR, RIA, Western Blotting, Immunofluroscens and their application. Immune deficiencies and autoimmunity.
• Photosynthetic microorganisms, photosynthetic pigments, and generation of reducing power by cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation, electron transport chain in photosynthetic bacteria.
• Carbon dioxide fixation pathways.
• Bacterial aerobic respiration, components of electron transport chain, free energy changes and electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation and theories of ATP formation, inhibition of electron transport chain. Electron transport chain in some heterotrophic and chemolithotrophic bacteria.
• Bacterial anaerobic respiration: Introduction. Nitrate, carbonate and sulfate as electron acceptors. Electron transport chains in some anaerobic bacteria. Catalase, super oxide dismutase, mechanism of oxygen toxicity. 
• Structure and organization of membrane 
• (Glyco-conjugants and proteins in membrane systems), fluid mosaic model of membrane. Methods to study diffusion of solutes in bacteria, passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, different mechanisms of active diffusion (Proton Motive Force, PTS, role of permeases in transport, different permeases in E. coli. Transport of aminoacids and inorganic ions in microorganisms and their mechanisms.
• Sporulating bacteria, molecular architecture of spores, induction and stages of sporulation, Influence of different factors on sporulation. Cytological and macromolecular changes during sporulation. Heat resistance and sporulation.
• Physiological groups of chemolithotrophs, ammonia oxidation by members of Genus Nitroso group, nitrite oxidation by Nitro group of genera. Oxidation of molecular hydrogen by Hydrogenomonas species. Ferrous and sulfur/sulfide oxidation by Thiobacillus species.  
• Introduction to microbial biodiversity – distribution, abundance, ecological niche. Types- Bacterial, Archael and   Eucaryal.
• Thermophiles: Classification, hyperthermophilic habitats and ecological aspects. Extremely Thermophilic Archaebacteria, Thermophily, commercial aspects of thermophiles. Applications of thermozymes. 
• Methanogens: Classification, Habitats, applications.  
• Classification , alkaline environment , soda lakes and deserts , calcium alkalophily Applications .
• Acidophiles: Classification, life at low pH, acidotolerence, applications.
• Classification, Dead Sea, discovery basin, cell walls and membranes – Purple membrane, compatible solutes.  Osmoadaptation / halotolerence. Applications of halophiles and their extremozymes.  
• Barophiles: Classification, high-pressure habitats, life under pressure, barophily, death under pressure.
• Aims and objectives of Space research. Life detection methods   a] Evidence of metabolism(Gulliver) b] Evidence of photosynthesis (autotrophic and heterotrophic) c] ATP production d] Phosphate uptake e] Sulphur uptake . Martian environment (atmosphere, climate and other details).
•  Antartica as a model for Mars. Search for life on Mars, Viking mission, Viking landers, and Biology box experiment. Gas exchange , Label release and pyrolytic release experiments . Monitoring of astronauts microbial flora: Alterations in the load of medically important microorganisms, changes in mycological autoflora, and changes in bacterial autoflora. 
•  Importance of enzyme purification, different sources of enzymes. Extracellular and intracellular enzymes. Physical and Chemical methods used for cell disintegration. Enzyme fractionation by precipitation (using Temperature, salt, solvent, pH, etc.), liquid-liquid extraction, ionic exchange, gel chromatography, affinity chromatography and other special purification methods. Enzyme crystallization techniques. Criteria of purity of enzymes. Pitfalls in working with pure enzymes.
• Irreversible, reversible, competitive, non-competitive and un-competitive inhibition with suitable examples and their kinetic studies. 
•  Allosteric inhibition, types of allosteric inhibition and their significance in metabolic regulation & their kinetic  study Vitamins and their co-enzymes: structure and functions with suitable examples Metalloenzymes and Metal ions as co-factors and enzyme activators. 
• Methods viz. adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment & membrane confinement   and their analytical, therapeutic & industrial applications. Properties of immobilized enzymes.  
• Chemical modification and site-directed mutagenesis to study the structure-function relationship of industrially important enzymes. 
• Microbial enzymes in textile, leather, wood industries and detergents. Enzymes in clinical diagnostics.
• Enzyme sensors for clinical processes and environmental analyses . Enzymes as therapeutic agents.
• Design of a basic fermenter, bioreactor configuration, design features, individual parts, baffles, impellers, foam separators, sparger, culture vessel, cooling and heating devices, probes for online monitoring, computer control of fermentation process, measurement and control of process. Reactors for specialized applications: Tube reactors, packed bed reactors, fluidized bed reactors, cyclone reactors, trickle flow reactors, their basic construction and types for distribution of gases.
• Transport phenomena in fermentation: Gas- liquid exchange and mass transfer, oxygen transfer, critical oxygen concentration, determination of Kla, heat transfer, aeration/agitation, its importance.
• Sterilization of Bioreactors, nutrients, air supply, products and effluents, process variables and control, scale-up of bioreactors.
• Growth of cultures in the fermenter Importance of media in fermentation, media formulation and modification .
• Kinetics of growth in batch culture, continuous culture with respect to substrate utilization, specific growth rate, steady state in a chemostat, fed-batch fermentation, yield of biomass, product, calculation for productivity, substrate utilization kinetics.
• Fermentation process: Inoculum development. Storage of cultures for repeated fermentations, scaling up of process form shake flask to industrial fermentation.
• Biomass separation by centrifugation, filtration, flocculation and other recent developments.
• Cell disintegration: Physical, chemical and enzymatic methods.
• Extraction: Solvent, two phase, liquid extraction, whole broth, aqueous multiphase extraction. 
• Purification by different methods. 
• Concentration by precipitation, ultra-filtration, reverse osmosis.
• Drying and crystallization.
• Isolation, selection and improvement of microbial cultures:  Screening and isolation of microorganisms, primary and secondary metabolites, enrichment, specific screening for the desired product.
• Strain improvement for the selected organism: mutation and screening of improved cultures, random and strategic screening methods, strategies of strain improvement for primary, secondary metabolites with relevant examples. Use of recombinant DNA technology, protoplast fusion techniques for strain improvement of primary and secondary metabolites.
• Production of recombinant molecules in heterologus system, problems associated with strain improvement programme, improvement of characters other than products and its application in the industry.
• Preservation of cultures after strain improvement programme.
• Isolation of industrially important microorganisms for microbial processes (citric / lactic/ alpha amylase) and improvement of strain for increase yield by mutation.
•  Determination of Thermal Death Point (TDP) and Thermal Death Time (TDT) of microorganisms for design of a sterilizer. [a] Determination of growth curve of a supplied microorganism and also determines substrate degradation profile. [b] Compute specific growth rate (m), growth yield (Y x/s) from the above.
• Extraction of Citric acid/Lactic acid by salt precipitation.
• Monitoring of dissolved oxygen during aerobic fermentation.
• Preservation of industrially important bacteria by lyophilization.
• Product concentration by vacuum concentrator
• Cell disruption for endoenzymes by sonication.
• Historical developments in genetics, discovery of DNA and experimental evidence, Structure of Circular DNA molecule, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary structure of DNA, Watson and Crick model of double stranded DNA the law of DNA constancy and C value paradox and topological manipulations.
• DNA replication: DNA replication mechanism, enzymes involved in DNA replication and models of DNA replication.
• Molecular basis of spontaneous and induced mutations [physical and chemical mutagenic agents], types of mutation:  point, frameshift, lethal, conditional lethal, inversion and deletion, null mutation, reversion of mutations, intra and intergenic suppression mutations. Environmental mutagenesis, toxicity testing and population genetics. 
• Systems that safeguard DNA. DNA methylation and  DNA repair mechanisms  - excision, mismatch, SOS , photoreactivation, recombination repair and  glycocylase system.
• Organization of transcriptional units and regulation of gene expression Mechanism of transcription of prokaryotes-Structure and function of RNA polymerase, [DNA foot printing], termination and antitermination – N proteins and nut sites in DNA binding proteins, enhancer sequences and control of transcription, RNA processing (Capping, polyadenylation, splicing, introns and exons) Ribonucleoprotein, structure of mRNA, rRNA, tRNA. Direction of protein synthesis, RNA template, direction with experimental proof, tRNA as adaptor, ribosomes and their organization in prokaryotes, polycistronic mRNA in bacteria, initiation of translation in bacteria, small sub-units, its accessory factors, SD sequence in bacteria, initiator tRNA, elongation of translation, translocation and termination mechanisms. Post-translational modification. Salient features of genetic code.
• Operon concept, co-ordinated control of structural genes, stringent response, catabolite repression, instability of bacterial RNA, positive regulation in E.coli [Arabinose operon] and negative regulation in E.coli [lac operon], inducers and repressors, regulation by attenuation by trp operon. 
• Genetic recombination processes: Role of rec proteins in homologous recombination.
• Conjugation: Discovery, F+, F- and Hfr cells, types of Hfr; F+ and F- and Hfr and F- genetic crosses. Mechanism of conjugation. Sexduction, conjugational transfer of colicinogenic and resistance transfer factors. Genetic mapping.  Plasmid Replication and Incompitability, Control of copy number.
• Transposons – Insertion sequences and composite transposons, phages as transposons, replicative, non-replicative and conservative transposition. Mutations i.e. deletions, inversions and frameshift due to transposition. Mechanism of transposition, controlling elements of maize – autonomous and non-autonomous elements. Types of transposons and their properties.
• T4 virulent phage: structure, life cycle, genetic map and DNA replication. Lamda temperate phage: Structure, genetic map, lytic and lysogenic cycle, lysogenic repression and phage immunity. [Lambda regulon] applications of phages in microbial genetics.                
• Purification of chromosomal / plasmid DNA and study of DNA profile:  Confirmation of nucleic acid by spectral study.          Quantitative estimation by diphenylamine test.  DNA denaturation and determination of Tm and G+C content. Agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA.
•  Effect of UV radiations to study the survival pattern of E. coli/yeast. Repair mechanisms in E. coli/yeast (Dark and photoreactivation)
•  Isolation of antibiotic resistant mutants by chemical mutagenesis.
•  Ampicillin selection method for isolation of auxotrophic mutant.
•  Extraction and Purification of RNA from S. cerevisiae.
• Studies on gene expression in E.coli with reference to lac operon.
•  Study of conjugation in E. coli.
•  Restriction digestion and agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA.
• Generalized transduction in E. coli using P1 phage.
•  Biotic and abiotic environment. Environmental segments. Composition and structure of environment. Concept of biosphere, communities and ecosystems. Ecosystem characteristics,  structure and function. Food chains, food webs and trophic structures. Ecological pyramids. 
• Water pollution and its control: Need for water management. Sources of water pollution. Measurement of water pollution, Eutrophication: Definition, causes of eutrophication, and microbial changes in eutrophic bodies of water induced by various inorganic pollutants. Effects of eutrophication on the quality of water environment, factors influencing eutrophication. Qualitative characteristics and properties of eutrophic lakes. Measurement   of degree of eutrophication. Algae in eutrophication, algal blooms, their effects and toxicity, coloured waters, red tides, and cultural eutrophication. Physico-chemical and biological measures to control eutrophication
• Microbiology of wastewater and solid waste treatment: - Waste-types-solid and liquid waste characterization, physical, chemical, biological, aerobic, anaerobic, primary, secondary and tertiary treatments.
• Anaerobic processes: Anaerobic digestion, anaerobic filters, and upflow anaerobic sludge. Treatment schemes for effluents of dairy, distillery, tannery, sugar and antibiotic industries (Types, microbes used, types of Effluent Treatment Plants).
• Bioconversion of Solid Waste and utilization as fertilizer.
• Bioaccumulation of   heavy metal ions from industrial effluents .  
• Microbiology of degradation of xenobiotics in the environment, ecological considerations, decay behaviour, biomagnification and degredative plasmids, hydrocarbons, substituted hydrocarbons, oil pollution, surfactants and pesticides. Genetically Modified Organisms released and its environmental impact assessment and ethical issues.
• Ozone depletion, UV-B, green house effect and acid rain, their impact and biotechnological approaches for management. . Containment of acid mine drainage applying biomining [with reference to copper extraction from low grade ores].
• Core techniques and essential enzymes used in recombination: restriction endonucleases, type I, II, III, recognition sequences, properties, nomenclature, classification of type II endonucleases, their activity. DNA ligase: Properties and specificity, S1 nuclease, BAL 31 nuclease, DNA polymerase, polynucleotide kinase, phosphatase, reverse transcriptase its activity and mode of action. Chemical synthesis of DNA. Restriction digestion, ligation and transformation.
• Properties, incompatibility, isolation and purification techniques, plasmid vectors and their properties, PBR 322 – its construction and derivatives, single stranded plasmids, promoter probe vectors, runaway plasmid vectors.
• Bacteriophage lambda (λ) as a vector: Essential features, organization of λ genome, general structure, rationale for vector construction, improved λ vectors, λ gt series, λ EMBL vectors, invitro packaging, cosmids, phasmids, filamentous phage vectors, λ zap, λ blue print vectors.
• Expression vectors, promoter probe vectors, vectors for library construction, genomic DNA libraries, chromosome walking and jumping, cDNA libraries, short gun cloning, directed cloning, phage display. Recombinant DNA technology with reference to cloning and production of interferon and insulin. Miscellaneous applications of Genetically engineered micro organisms (GEMS) / genetically modified organisms (GMO’s). 
• PCR methods and Applications DNA sequencing methods, Dideoxy and Chemical method.
• Sequence assembly. Automated sequencing.
• Genetic and physical maps, physical mapping and map –based cloning, choice of mapping population, simple sequence repeat loci, southern and fluorescence in situ hybridization for genome analysis, Chromosome microdissection and microcloning, molecular markers in genome analysis: RFLP, RAPD and AFLP analysis, molecular markers linked to disease resistance genes, Application of RFLP in forensic, disease prognosis, genetic counseling, pedigree, varietal etc.
• animal trafficking and poaching: Germplasm maintenance, taxonomy and Biodiversity. 
• Metabolic pathways and metabolic control mechanisms, industrial production of citric acid, lactic acid, enzymes (alpha-amylase, lipase, xylase, pectinases, proteases), acetone- butanol, lysine and glutamic acid. 
• Microbial production of therapeutic compounds (β lactam, aminoglycosides, Ansamycins (Rifamycin), peptide antibiotics Quinolinones), biotransformation of steroids, vitamin B12 and riboflavin fermentation. 
• Modern trends in microbial production of bioplastics (PHB, PHA), bioinsectices (thuricide), biopolymer (dextran, alginate, xanthan, pullulan), Biofertilizers (nitrogen fixer Azotobacter, Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms), Single Cell Protein and production of biological weapons with reference to anthrax.
•  Useful features of bio-fuels. The substrate digester and the microorganisms in the process of biogas production (biomethanation). Production of bioethanol from sugar, molasses, starch and cellulosic materials. Ethanol recovery. Microbial production of hydrogen gas, biodiesel from hydrocarbons.
• Some industrial techniques for whole cell and enzyme immobilization. Application and advantages of cell and enzyme immobilization in pharmaceutical, food and fine chemical industries. 
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, Secrets, Patenting of biological materials, international co operation, obligations with patent applications, implication of patenting, current issues, hybridoma technology etc. Patenting of higher plants and animals, transgenic organisms and isolated genes, patenting of genes and DNA sequences, plant breeders right and farmers rights.
• Databases, types, pairwise and multiple alignments. Structure-function relationship. Sequence assembling using computers.  Computer applications in molecular biology, Protein domains and human genome analysis program (BLAST, FASTA, GCC etc.) Search and retrieval of biological information and databases sequence, databank. (PDB and gene bank), accessing information (Network expasy, EMB Net, ICGEB Net).
• Preparation of ordered cosmid libraries, bacterial artificial chromosomal libraries, shotgun libraries and sequencing, conventional sequencing (Sanger, Maxam and Gilbert Methods), automated sequencing.
• Computational methods, homology algorithms (BLAST) for proteins and nucleic acids, open reading frames, annotations of genes, conserved protein motifs related structure / function 
• (PROSITE, PFAM, Profile Scan). DNA analyses for repeats (Direct and inverted), palindromes, folding programmes. Use of Internet, public domain databases for nucleic acid and protein sequences (EMBL, GeneBank), database for protein structure (PDB).
• Printing or oligonucleotides and PCR products on glass slides, nitrocellulose paper. Whole genome analysis for Global patterns of gene expression using fluorescent-labelled cDNA or end labelled RNA probes. Analyses of single nucleotide polymorphism using DNA chips.
• Two dimensional separation of total cellular proteins, isolation and sequence analysis of individual protein spots by Mass Spectroscopy. Protein microarrary advantages and disadvantages of DNA and protein microarrays      
•  Antibiotics and synthetic antimicrobial agents 
• (Aminoglycosides, β lactams, tetracyclines, ansamycins, macrolid antibiotics) Antifungal antibiotics, antitumor substances.
•  Peptide antibiotics, Chloramphenicol, Sulphonamides and Quinolinone antimicrobial agents. Chemical disinfectants, antiseptics and preservatives.
• Mechanism of action of antibiotics (inhibitors of cell wall synthesis, nucleic acid and protein synthesis).
• Molecular principles of drug targeting. Drug delivery system in gene therapy Bacterial resistance to antibiotics.
• Mode of action of bacterial killing by quinolinones.
• Bacterial resistance to quionolinones.
• Mode of action of non – antibiotic antimicrobial agents.
• Penetrating defenses – How the antimicrobial agents reach the targets (cellular permeability barrier, cellular transport system and drug diffusion).
• Microbial contamination and spoilage of pharmaceutical products (sterile injectibles, non injectibles, ophthalmic preparations and implants) and their sterilization. 
• Manufacturing procedures and in process control of pharmaceuticals. Other pharmaceuticals produced by microbial fermentations (streptokinase, streptodornase).
• New vaccine technology, DNA vaccines, synthetic peptide vaccines, multivalent subunit vaccines. Vaccine clinical trials.
• Financing R&D capital and market outlook. IP, BP, USP.
• Government regulatory practices and policies, FDA perspective.
• Reimbursement of drugs and biologicals, legislative perspective.
• Rational drug design.
• Immobilization procedures for pharmaceutical applications (liposomes). Macromolecular, cellular and synthetic drug carriers. 
• Biosensors in pharmaceuticals.
• Application of microbial enzymes in pharmaceuticals.  
• Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) in pharmaceutical industry. 
• Regulatory aspects of quality control.
• Quality assurance and quality management in pharmaceuticals ISO, WHO and US certification. 
• Sterilization control and sterility testing (heat sterilization, D value, z value, survival curve, Radiation, gaseous and filter sterilization)  Chemical and biological indicators.
• Design and layout of sterile product manufacturing unit. (Designing of Microbiology laboratory) Safety in microbiology laboratory.                                  

MICROBIOLOGY- MEDICAL EDUCATION MCQs

1:-Cholera red reaction is due to which of the following?
 A:-Methyl red and VP test
 B:-Indole and Methyl red test
 C:-Indole and nitrate reduction test
 D:-Urease and nitrate reduction test
Ans: C
 
2:-DPT is used for protection against
 A:-Dysentry, polio and tetanus
 B:-Diarrhoea, pyrexia and tetanus
 C:-Diphtheria, polio and tetanus
 D:-Diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus
Ans: D
 
3:-Which of the following is called 'the millionaire molecule'?
 A:-IgM
 B:-IgE
 C:-IgA
 D:-IgD
Ans: A
 
4:-Bence Jones protein is associated with which of the following diseases?
 A:-Jaundice
 B:-Multiple myeloma
 C:-Diabetes
 D:-Mycotic infections
Ans: B
 
5:-Weil-Felix test is used for the diagnosis of which of the following diseases?
 A:-Tetanus
 B:-Tuberculosis
 C:-Typhus fevers
 D:-Typhoid fever
Ans: C
 
6:-Smallest unit of antigenicity is known as __________.
 A:-Antigen
 B:-Antibody
 C:-Haptens
 D:-Epitope
Ans: D
 
7:-Pasteurization is defined as _______________.
 A:-Heating to 62.8°C for 30 seconds
 B:-Heating to 68.1°C for 80 seconds
 C:-Heating to 71.7°C for 15 seconds
 D:-Heating to 82.5°C for 10 minutes
Ans: C
 
8:-Hybridomas can be isolated using which of the following media?
 A:-Hypoxanthine-Aminopterin-Thymidine medium
 B:-Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium
 C:-Murashige and Skoog medium
 D:-Hypoxanthine-Aminoglycoside-Thymine medium
Ans: A
 
9:-Shingles is caused by reactivation of which of the following viruses?
 A:-Rubella virus
 B:-Varicella Zoster virus
 C:-Shope Fibroma virus
 D:-Respiratory Syncytial virus
Ans: B
 
10:-Lyophilization is otherwise called
 A:-Freeze thawing
 B:-Freeze etching
 C:-Freeze fracturing
 D:-Freeze drying
Ans: D
 
11:-Which one of the following is a capsulated pathogenic yeast?
 A:-Schizosaccharomyces pombe
 B:-Aspergillus flavus
 C:-Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 D:-Cryptococcus neoformans
Ans: D
 
12:-Penicillin is an example for a ________.
 A:-Aminoglycoside
 B:-Polyene antibiotic
 C:-β-lactam antibiotic
 D:-Polypeptide antibiotic
Ans: C
 
13:-Gram stained smear a of CSF sample shows the presence of gram negative diplococci. Which one of the following the organisms is most likely to be isolated from the sample?
 A:-N. gonorrhoeae
 B:-N. meningitidis
 C:-Streptococcus pneumoniae
 D:-Streptococcus pyogenes
Ans: B
 
14:-Nitrogen fixing symbiotic organism present in the leaves of Azolla is
 A:-Anabaena
 B:-Alosira
 C:-Azospirillum
 D:-Rhizobium
Ans: A
 
15:-Denitrification refers to which of the following processes?
 A:-Production of ammonia form amino acids
 B:-Conversion of nitrogen to ammonia
 C:-Conversion of nitrates to nitrogen
 D:-Conversion of ammonia to nitrate
Ans: C
 
16:-Which one of the following is considered to be an indicator of water pollution?
 A:-N. gonorrhoeae
 B:-E. Coli
 C:-Haemophilus influenzae
 D:-Streptococcus pyogenes
Ans: B
 
17:-Phosphatase test is used to test the efficacy of which of the following processes?
 A:-Pasteurization
 B:-Canning
 C:-Cold sterilization
 D:-None of the above
Ans: A
 
18:-Which of the following is not used for disinfection of water?
 A:-Chlorine
 B:-Ultra violet rays
 C:-Ozone
 D:-Mercuric chloride
Ans: D
 
19:-Botulinum toxin acts by which of the following mechanism?
 A:-Exerts its effects on the cyclic AMP system
 B:-Causes lysis of RBC's
 C:-Blocks the release of acetylcholine, at the neuromuscular junction
 D:-Transfer of ADP-ribose to elongation factor-2, inhibiting protein synthesis
Ans: C
 
20:-Which of the following is considered to be the optimum temperature range for the growth of psychrophiles?
 A:-20-37°C
 B:-80-110°C
 C:-45-65°C
 D:-0-15°C
Ans: D
 
21:-Which of the following is not used for the cultivation of viruses?
 A:-Cell cultures
 B:-Blood agar
 C:-Animals
 D:-Embryonated eggs
Ans: B
 
22:-Citric acid production is done with the help of which of the following
 A:-Aspergillus niger
 B:-Aspergillus flavus
 C:-Penicillium chyrsogenum
 D:-Sacharomyces cerevisiae
Ans: A
 
23:-Which of the following methods is used to demonstrate antibiotic sensitivity?
 A:-Roll tube technique
 B:-Slide Culture technique
 C:-Stokes' method
 D:-Standard Plate count
Ans: C
 
24:-Strain improvement for industrial fermentation can be achieved by which of the following methods
 A:-Parasexual hybridization
 B:-UV mutagenesis
 C:-Protoplast fusion
 D:-All of the above
Ans: D
 
25:-Downstream process is used for
 A:-Extraction of product
 B:-Preparation of media
 C:-Sterilization of media
 D:-None of the above
Ans: A
 
26:-Hiss's serum water medium is used to study fermentation reactions in case of which of the following bacteria?
 A:-Staphylococcus aureus
 B:-Streptococcus pneumoniae
 C:-E. Coli
 D:-Salmonella typhi
Ans: B
 
27:-The colonies of E. coli growing on EMB agar appear as _________.
 A:-Dark centered colonies with green metallic sheen
 B:-Pink coloured colonies with dark centres
 C:-Yellow coloured colonies
 D:-Blue colonies
Ans: A
 
28:-Flagella seen in Vibrio cholerae can be described as __________.
 A:-Peritrichous flagella
 B:-Bipolar
 C:-Lophotrichous
 D:-Single polar flagellum
Ans: D
 
29:-Which of the following descriptions best suits a mycorrhizae?
 A:-Symbiotic association between a fungus and an algae
 B:-Symbiotic association between an actinomycete and fungus
 C:-Symbiotic association between a fungus and roots of a vascular plant
 D:-None of the above
Ans: C
 
30:-Nisin is defined as which one of the following?
 A:-Nucleotide, toxic to nerves
 B:-Peptide, lantibiotic used as food preservative
 C:-Carbohydrate with antimicrobial properties
 D:-None of the above
Ans: B
  
​31:-Hopanoids are present in which part of bacterial cell?
 A:-Cell membrane
 B:-Cell wall
 C:-Cytoplasm
 D:-Nucleoid
Ans: A
 
32:-Standard reference text for bacterial classification
 A:-Baltimore's classification
 B:-Zimmer's catalogue
 C:-Bergey's manual
 D:-Bentham and Hooker's classification
Ans: C
 
33:-Volutin granules can be demonstrated by which of the following staining methods?
 A:-Gram's staining
 B:-LPCB
 C:-Acid fast staining
 D:-Albert's stain
Ans: D
 
34:-Which one of the following is a test for diagnosis of typhoid?
 A:-ASO test
 B:-Widal test
 C:-VDRL test
 D:-TPHA test
Ans: B
 
35:-The temperature and holding period for routine autoclaving are
 A:-`160^(@)C` for 1 second
 B:-`121^(@)C` for 15 minutes
 C:-`115^(@)C` for 10 minutes
 D:-`130^(@)C` for 15 seconds
Ans: B
 
36:-The term Iatrogenic infection is also known as
 A:-Physician induced infection
 B:-Subclinical infections
 C:-Hospital acquired infection
 D:-Blood borne infection
Ans: A
 
37:-________ is a major component of biogas.
 A:-Alkane
 B:-Butane
 C:-Ethane
 D:-Methane
Ans: D
 
38:-Phenyl acetic acid added to the fermentation media for penicillin production is a
 A:-Inducer
 B:-Inhibitor
 C:-Precursor
 D:-Mordant
Ans: C
 
39:-Baffles are used in fermenters for providing
 A:-Acidification
 B:-Agitation
 C:-Antifoam
 D:-None of the above
Ans: B
 
40:-You are provided with a sputum sample of a suspected case of tuberculosis. The smear prepared with the sample is stained with which of the following staining methods.
 A:-Lactophenol Cotton Blue stain
 B:-Albert's stain
 C:-Fontana's stain
 D:-Ziehl-Neelsen stain
Ans: D
 
41:-Numerical taxonomy is otherwise called as __________.
 A:-Adansonian classification
 B:-Molecular classification
 C:-Adamson classification
 D:-None of the above
Ans: A
 
42:-Carboxysomes is the site fore which of the following reactions?
 A:-Nitrogen fixation
 B:-`CO_(2)` fixation
 C:-Reduction of `CO_(2)`
 D:-None of the above
Ans: B
 
43:-String test is used to identify which of the following bacteria?
 A:-Vibrio spp.
 B:-Salmonella typhi
 C:-E. coli
 D:-Shigella sp.
Ans: A

44) DumDum fever is the name given to-
A) Visceral leishmaniasis
B) New world leishmaniasis
C) South American trypanosomiasis
D) East African sleeping sickness
Ans: A

45) Montenegro test is used to diagnose-
A) Kala azar
B) Ecchinococcosis
C) Chagas disease
D) Toxoplasmosis
Ans: A

46) Which type of the following biological vectors is responsible for transmission of malarial parasite-
​A) Cyclo-developmental
B) Propagative
C) Transovarial
D) Cyclo-propagative
Ans: 4

​47:-Which of the following tests are used as confirmatory test for diagnosis of HIV infection?
 A:-Whey agglutination test
 B:-VDRL test
 C:-Widal test
 D:-Western Blot
Ans: D

48:-The ratio of the water vapour pressure of food substrate to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature is known as __________.
 A:-Water activity
 B:-Water pressure
 C:-Partial pressure of water
 D:-None of the above
Ans: A

49:-Azotobacter is
 A:-a plant pathogenic bacteria
 B:-used for production of acetic acid
 C:-free living bacteria which can fix nitrogen
 D:-none of the above
Ans: C

50:-Secondary metabolites are produced during which phase of growth cycle of a microbe?
 A:-Log phase
 B:-Stationary phase
 C:-Lag phase
 D:-None of the above
Ans: B

51:-Malaria is caused by which of the following?
 A:-Macromonas
 B:-Micrococcus
 C:-Paramecium
 D:-Plasmodium
Ans: D

52:-Rabies is caused by
 A:-Rickettsia
 B:-Rhabdovirus
 C:-Rubella virus
 D:-Rotavirus
Ans: B

53:-Candida albicans does not show which the following characteristics?
 A:-Budding Gram positive cells
 B:-Reynolds-Braude phenomenon
 C:-Tuberculate spores
 D:-Pseudomycelia
Ans: C

54:-When an infective female Anopheles mosquito bites a human being which of the following is introduced into the human body?
 A:-Sporozoites
 B:-Signet ring stage
 C:-Gametocytes
 D:-Merozoites
Ans: A

55:-Which of the following is not usually used for cultivation of fungi?
 A:-Cell culture
 B:-SDA
 C:-PDA
 D:-Rose Bengal Agar
Ans: A

56:-Characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies associated with rabies virus infection is known as ___________.
 A:-Guarnieri bodies
 B:-Negri bodies
 C:-Bollinger bodies
 D:-Cowdry type a inclusions
Ans: B

57:-Kauffmann-White Scheme is used for serotyping of which of the following bacteria?
 A:-Salmonella
 B:-Shigella
 C:-Streptococcus
 D:-Vibrio
Ans: A

58:-MacConkey's agar is a
 A:-differential medium
 B:-selective and differential medium
 C:-selective medium
 D:-enriched medium
Ans: B

59:-Physiologically and metabolically uniform cell population is obtained during which of the following phases of growth
 A:-Death phase
 B:-Stationary phase
 C:-Log phase
 D:-Lag phase
Ans: C

60:-Which of the following methods is used to sterilise L-J medium?
 A:-Pasteurization
 B:-Autoclaving
 C:-Hot-air oven
 D:-Inspissation
Ans: D

61:-Spirochaetes move with the help of which of the following?
 A:-pseudopodia
 B:-peritrichous flagella
 C:-axial filaments
 D:-pili
Ans: C

62:-Branching filamentous bacteria are known as ___________.
 A:-Archaebacteria
 B:-Agaricus
 C:-Aspergillus
 D:-Actinomycetes
Ans: D

63:-Leprosy is known as
 A:-Lancefield disease
 B:-Hansen's disease
 C:-Addison's disease
 D:-Leeuwenhoek's disease
Ans: B

64:-The Ghon complex, a lesion in the lung and regional lymph node is found in which of the following diseases?
 A:-Primary tuberculosis
 B:-Tuberculoid leprosy
 C:-Pneumonia
 D:-Influenza
Ans: A

65:-Bile esculin test is used to distinguish which of the following bacteria?
 A:-Pneumococci
 B:-Group B streptococci
 C:-Staphylococci
 D:-Group D streptococci
Ans: D

66:-Which of the following is a predatory bacteria?
 A:-Streptomyces
 B:-Bacillus
 C:-Bdellovibro
 D:-Pseudomonas
Ans: C

67) A parasite that must spend at least part of its life cycle on or in a host is called-
​A) Facultative parasite
B) Hyperparasite
C) Obligate parasite
D) Pathogenic parasite
Ans: 3

68) Which of the following is NOT a gene of HIV-1-
A) Nef
B) Vpx
C) Rev
D) Vif
Ans: 2

69) Which of the following is NOT a human infection cause by slow viruses-
A) Visna
B) PML
C) Kuru
D) CJ disease
Ans: 1

70) Which of the following antiviral agent is part of HAART(Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy)-
A) Lamivudine
B) Amprenavit
C) Saquinavir
D) Delavirdine
Ans: 1

71) Acute and highly infectious Hepatitis B Virus infection will have serological profile as-
A) HBsAg +, HBeAg +, Anti-HBcIgM -, Anti-HBs -, Anti-HBe -
B) HBsAg +, HBeAg +, Anti-HBcIgM +, Anti-HBs -, Anti-HBe -
C) HBsAg - ,HBeAg-, Anti-HBcIgM -, Anti-HBs +, Anti-HBe -
D) HBsAg -, HBeAg -, Anti-HBcIgG -, Anti-HBs +, Anti-HBe +
Ans: 2

72) Lesions on genitalia in case of Chancroid have characteristic features of-
A) It is painless, circumscribed, indurated, superficial ulcer
B) Multiple painful and tender vesicular lesions
C) Painless, granulomatous nodule producing deep red sharply defined ulcer
D) Multiple, tender, painful, purulent, ragged edges of ulcers
Ans: 4

73) Which of the following is NOT causing infection in fetuses-
A) Toxoplasma gondii
B) Parvovirus B19
C) Reovirus
D) Rubella virus
Ans: 3

74) Which of the following viruses are NOT cultivable on tissue cultures-
A) Rubeola
B) Hepatitis B virus
C) Respiratory Syncytial Virus
D) Ebola virus
Ans: 2

75) Which of the following statement regarding sensitivity and specificity of a test is TRUE-
A) A highly sensitive test would have least number of false negative results
B) A highly specific test would have least number of false negative results
C) A poorly sensitive test would have more number of true positives
D) A poorly specific test would have more number of true positives
Ans: 1

76) Von Magnus phenomenon in virus replication is-
A) Production of non-infective daughter virions
B) No release of daughter virions after replication
C) Production of ghost virions after replication
D) Production of low infectivity daughter virions
Ans: 4

77) Which of the following cells is known as Large Granular Lymphocytes-
A) Plasma cells
B) NK cells
C) T-cells
D) K-cells
Ans: 2

78) Which of the following is a Pan T- cell marker-
A) CD-2
B) CD3
C) CD19
D) CD25
Ans: 2

79) Which of the following is NOT a tick borne hemorrhagic fever-
A) Crimean-congo hemorrhagic fever
B) Omsk hemorrhagic fever
C) Kyasanur forest disease
D) Yellow fever
Ans: 4

80) Which of the following statement is TRUE about λ, κ and heavy chains of Ig molecule-
A) Coded in the same site of a chromosome
B) Coded in the different site of a chromosome
C) The chains are formed by genetic rearrangement after maturation
D) Different chains of same Ig are coded by same chromosome
Ans: 3

81) The secretory piece of IgA is synthesized in –
A) T-cells
B) B-cells
C) Lymph nodes
D) Mucosal epithelium
Ans: 4

82) Membrane attack complex in complement pathway has-
A) C5b, C6
B) C6, C7
C) C8, C9
D) C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9
Ans: 4

83) All of the following are TRUE about immunologic techniques EXCEPT-
A) ELISA can detect antigen and antibody both
B) Immunofluorescence test uses Fluorescein iso thiocyanate
C) Immunoblotting is also called as Northern blotting
D) Immunoferritin is used in Immunoelectron microscopy
Ans: 3

84) Rheumatoid factor is-
A) IgD antibody against Fc fragment of IgG
B) IgG antibody against Fc fragment of IgG
C) IgM antibody against Fc fragment of IgM
D) IgE antibody against Fc fragment of IgM
Ans: 2

85) At what temperature pasteurization by Flash method is done-
A) 125o C for 30 sec
B) 60o C for 5 min
C) 72o C for 15-20 sec
D) 120o C for 2 min
Ans: 3

86) Phenol Co-efficient indicates-
A) Efficacy of a disinfectant
B) Dilution of a disinfectant
C) Quality of a disinfectant
D) Purity of a disinfectant
Ans: 1

87) Psychrophillic bacteria can grow at temperatures-
A) 50-60o C
B) 20-40o C
C) ≤20o C
D) ≥90o C
Ans: 3

88) Dark ground microscopy is needed for all EXCEPT-
A) Treponema pallidum
B) Borrelia recurrentis
C) Leptospira biflexa
D) Rickettsia prowazekii
Ans: 4

89) Which species of Streptococcus is known as Flesh eating bacteria-
A) Streptococcus pyogenes
B) Enterococcus faecium
C) Streptococcus mucilagenosus
D) Streptococcus sanguis
Ans: 1

90) Which is the suitable test to check water bacterology-
A) Presumptive coliform count
B) Total plate count
C) Semiquantitative coliform count
D) Total fecal Streptococcus count
Ans: 1

91) Which of the following is NOT true of C1 esterase inhibitor-
A) It inhibits Hageman factor
B) It inhibits plasmin
C) It is alpha-neuraminoglycoprotein
D) It inhibits the normal progress of complement cascade
Ans: 4

92) Which of the following is NOT an example of molecular mimicry-
A) Shigella flexneri and HLA B27
B) Cosackie B virus and Myocardium
C) Corynebacterium diphtheriae and glial cells
D) Mycobacterium tuberculosis and joint membranes
Ans: 3

93) Which of the following is NOT true -
A) Alpha feto protein is found in hepatomas
B) Carcinoembryonic antigen is found in Colonic cancers
C) CA-135 is found in ovarian cancers
D) Prostate specific antigen is found in Prostate cancers
Ans: 3

94) Which of the following is NOT a method for bacteriological examination of air-
A) Settle plate
B) Slit sampler
C) Air centrifuge
D) Pour plate method
Ans: 4

95) Noguchi’s medium is used for the culture of-
A) Borrelia
B) Leptospira
C) Brucella
D) Francisella
Ans: 1

96) Obligate aerobes break down superoxides and hydrogen peroxide due to-
A) Thermonuclease
B) Superoxide dismutase and catalase
C) Phosphatase
D) Luciferase
Ans: 2

97) Which of the following is NOT a recent diagnostic test in microbiology-
​A) Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate(LAL)
B) Mass Spectrometry Immuno Assay
C) Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionisation(MALDI)
D) Chemiluminescence Immuno Assay
Ans: 1

98:-Eijkman test is carried out at which the following temperatures?
 A:-37°C
 B:-25°C
 C:-44°C
 D:-54°C
Ans: C

99:-Otomycosis refers to infection of which part of the body?
 A:-thigh
 B:-ear
 C:-eye
 D:-throat
Ans: B

100:-Which of the following is used for determination of efficacy of moist-heat sterilisation?
 A:-spores of Bacillus cereus
 B:-cells of Salmonella typhi
 C:-cells of clostridium tetani
 D:-spores of Bacillus stearothermophilus
Ans: D​

​​

• Microbiology- Food Safety
• Microbiology- Medical Education
• Microbiology- Medical Education- Page 1